TABLE 1. Demographic and Descriptive Characteristics of Respondents (N = 50)
_____________________________________________________________________
Characteristic f %
_____________________________________________________________________
Age
18-28 24 48.0
29-39 13 26.0
40-50 5 10.0
51+ 8 16.0
Gender
Female 29 58.0
Male 21 42.0
Arrive in United Statesa
Early 1979 or before 2 4.1
Late 1979 or After 49 95.9
Age Enter United Statesa
18 Years Old or Younger 32 68.1
19 Years Old or Older 15 31.9
Marital Status
Married 14 28.0
Divorced 2 4.0
Widowed 3 6.0
Single 31 62.0
Householda
Two Parents 27 55.1
Single Parents 7 14.3
Step-Parents 1 2.0
Extended Family 5 10.2
Other 9 18.4
Are You a Parent?a
Yes 18 37.5
No 30 62.5
If Yes, Number of Children Presently Living
with Them Presentlya
1 1 7.7
2 5 38.5
3 2 15.4
4 3 23.1
5 2 15.4
TABLE 1. Continued
_____________________________________________________________________
Characteristic f %
_____________________________________________________________________
Level of Educationa
University Graduate 14 28.6
Some University 8 16.3
Junior or Community College 10 20.4
High School 8 16.3
Some Elementary School 2 4.1
Other 7 14.3
Type of Incomea
Public Assistance 14 29.2
Self-Employment 1 2.1
Unemployment 1 2.1
Employment Full-Time 16 33.3
Employment Part-Time 12 25.0
Other 4 8.3
Approximate Gross Family Incomea
0-$19,999 27 55.1
$20,000-39,999 13 26.5
$40,000-59,999 5 10.2
$60,000-79,999 3 6.1
$80,000+ 1 2.0
_____________________________________________________________________
a Contained missing data.
TABLE 2. Respondents' Attitudes Toward Discipline of Children (N = 50)
_____________________________________________________________________
Item f %
_____________________________________________________________________
It would be a disgrace if a child yelled at his/her parents.
Strongly disagree 2 4.0
Disagree 7 14.0
Agree 19 38.0
Strongly agree 20 40.0
No opinion/Not sure 2 4.0
Sometimes children know more than his/her parents.
Strongly disagree 3 6.0
Disagree 8 16.0
Agree 30 60.0
Strongly agree 7 14.0
No opinion/Not sure 2 4.0
Parents need to be strict to keep their children in line.a
Strongly disagree 3 6.1
Disagree 10 20.4
Agree 20 40.8
Strongly agree 16 32.7
Parents sometimes need to use physical punishment to
teach their children right from wrong.
Strongly disagree 4 8.0
Disagree 13 26.0
Agree 16 32.0
Strongly agree 16 32.0
No opinion/Not sure 1 2.0
Parents decide what is best for their children.
Strongly disagree 3 6.0
Disagree 14 28.0
Agree 17 34.0
Strongly agree 13 26.0
No opinion/Not sure 3 6.0
Parents should have the right to use any method of
discipline with their children.
Strongly disagree 8 16.0
Disagree 11 22.0
Agree 13 26.0
Strongly agree 16 32.0
No opinion/Not sure 2 4.0
TABLE 2. Continued
_____________________________________________________________________
Item f %
_____________________________________________________________________
Children who are bad need to feel ashamed and guilty.
Strongly disagree 8 16.0
Disagree 13 26.0
Agree 18 36.0
Strongly agree 9 18.0
No opinion/Not sure 2 4.0
Children should not tell their parents what to do.
Strongly disagree 4 8.0
Disagree 19 38.0
Agree 15 30.0
Strongly agree 11 22.0
No opinion/Not sure 1 2.0
Parents know better than their children.
Strongly disagree 4 8.0
Disagree 19 38.0
Agree 16 32.0
Strongly agree 7 14.0
No opinion/Not sure 4 8.0
The belief that parents abuse their children is absurd.
Strongly disagree 7 14.0
Disagree 18 36.0
Agree 13 26.0
Strongly agree 9 18.0
No opinion/Not sure 3 6.0
Parents with conservative/traditional values have
obedient children.
Strongly disagree 9 18.0
Disagree 11 22.0
Agree 14 28.0
Strongly agree 7 14.0
No opinion/Not sure 9 18.0
Parents should have the rights to use corporal
punishment.
Strongly disagree 9 18.0
Disagree 19 38.0
Agree 11 22.0
Strongly agree 9 18.0
No opinion/Not sure 2 4.0
TABLE 2. Continued
_____________________________________________________________________
Item f %
_____________________________________________________________________
Time out and reasoning does not work with children.
Strongly disagree 7 14.0
Disagree 24 48.0
Agree 9 18.0
Strongly agree 7 14.0
No opinion/Not sure 3 6.0
It is not acceptable for children to voice their opinion
if they disagree with their parents.
Strongly disagree 13 26.0
Disagree 18 36.0
Agree 7 14.0
Strongly agree 9 18.0
No opinion/Not sure 3 6.0
It is inappropriate for parents to accept faults.
Strongly disagree 16 32.0
Disagree 20 40.0
Agree 5 10.0
Strongly agree 3 6.0
No opinion/Not sure 6 12.0
_____________________________________________________________________
a Contained missing data.
TABLE 3. Respondents' Methods of Discipline (N = 50)
_____________________________________________________________________
Physical Emotional Reasoning
Item f % f % f %
_____________________________________________________________________
A child fails in school. 1 2.0 1 2.0 48 96.0
A child refuses to share 1 2.0 1 2.0 47 95.9
toys.a
A child refuses to clean 2 4.0 1 2.0 47 94.0
his/her room.
A child receives bad grades. 0 0.0 3 6.0 47 94.0
A child acts too young for 1 2.0 4 8.0 45 90.0
his/her age.
A child refuses to do the 4 8.2 1 2.0 44 89.8
dishes.a
A child makes fun of others.a 2 4.1 3 6.1 44 89.8
A child cries a lot.a 4 8.3 1 2.1 43 89.6
A child tells parents a lie. 6 12.0 0 0.0 44 88.0
A child draws on the wall. 6 12.0 0 0.0 44 88.0
A child cheats on a test. 3 6.0 3 6.0 44 88.0
A child does not do his/her 2 4.0 4 8.0 44 88.0
homework.
A child complains or is 4 8.0 4 8.0 42 84.0
whiney.
A child jumps on the sofa. 8 16.0 1 2.0 41 82.0
A child runs away from 4 8.2 7 14.3 38 77.6
home.a
A child disrespects adults 12 24.0 0 0.0 37 75.5
or authorities.
A child is caught using 9 18.4 3 6.1 37 75.5
profanity.a
TABLE 3. Continued
_____________________________________________________________________
Physical Emotional Reasoning
Item f % f % f %
_____________________________________________________________________
A child is cruel to others.a 11 22.4 1 2.0 37 75.5
A child is truant from school. 10 20.0 3 6.0 37 74.0
A child got suspended from 9 18.4 4 8.2 36 73.5
school.a
A child refuses to go to 10 20.0 4 8.0 36 72.0
school.
A child smokes cigarettes. 11 22.0 4 8.0 35 70.0
A child argues often with 10 20.0 5 10.0 35 70.0
parents or other adults.
A child bites a friend. 13 26.0 2 4.0 35 70.0
A child goes out without 9 18.0 9 18.0 32 64.0
permission.
A child does not listen to 15 30.0 3 6.0 32 64.0
his/her parents.
A child talks back to his/ 13 26.0 6 12.0 31 62.0
her parents.
A child steals from stores. 19 38.0 1 2.0 30 60.0
A child uses marijuana. 15 30.0 8 16.0 27 54.0
A child curses at parents.a 22 44.9 4 8.2 23 46.9
_____________________________________________________________________
a Contained missing data.
TABLE 4. Respondents' Acculturation Level (N = 50)
_____________________________________________________________________
Item f %
_____________________________________________________________________
What languages can you speak?
Khmer only 9 18.0
Mostly Khmer, some English 8 16.0
Khmer and English about equally well (bilingual) 15 30.0
Mostly English, some Khmer 18 36.0
Only English 0 0.0
What languages do you prefer?
Khmer only 9 18.0
Mostly Khmer, some English 8 16.0
Khmer and English about equally well (bilingual) 16 32.0
Mostly English, some Khmer 17 34.0
Only English 0 0.0
How do you identify yourself?a
Asian 5 10.2
Asian American 2 4.1
Cambodian (Khmer) American 41 83.7
American 0 0.0
Other 1 2.0
What is the ethnic origin of the friends and peers
that you have?
Almost exclusively Cambodian, Cambodian Americans, 15 30.0
other Asian or Orientals
Mostly Cambodian Americans, other Asian or Orientals 12 24.0
About equally Cambodian groups, other Asian or 20 40.0
Oriental groups and Anglo groups
Mostly Anglo, Blacks, Hispanics, or other non-Asian 1 2.0
ethnic groups
Almost exclusively Anglos, Blacks, Hispanics or other 2 4.0
non-Asian ethnic groups
Whom do you associate with in your community?
Almost exclusively Cambodian, Cambodian Americans, 11 22.0
other Asian or Orientals
Mostly Cambodian Americans, other Asian or Orientals 19 38.0
About equally Cambodian groups, other Asian or 16 32.0
Oriental groups and Anglo groups
Mostly Anglo, Blacks, Hispanics, or other non-Asian 3 6.0
ethnic groups
Almost exclusively Anglos, Blacks, Hispanics or other 1 2.0
non-Asian ethnic groups
TABLE 4. Continued
_____________________________________________________________________
Item f %
_____________________________________________________________________
If you could pick, whom would you prefer to associate
with in the community?
Almost exclusively Cambodian, Cambodian Americans, 11 22.0
other Asian or Orientals
Mostly Cambodian Americans, other Asian or Orientals 9 18.0
About equally Cambodian groups, other Asian or 25 50.0
Oriental groups and Anglo groups
Mostly Anglo, Blacks, Hispanics, or other non-Asian 5 10.0
ethnic groups
Almost exclusively Anglos, Blacks, Hispanics or other 0 0.0
non-Asian ethnic groups
What is your music preference?a
Only Cambodian (Khmer) 9 18.4
Mostly Cambodian (Khmer) 3 6.1
Equally Cambodian (Khmer) and English 18 36.7
Mostly English 14 28.6
English only 5 10.2
What is your movie preference?
Cambodian (Khmer) language movies only 10 20.0
Cambodian (Khmer) language movies mostly 3 6.0
Equally Cambodian (Khmer)/English 15 30.0
English language movies mostly 17 34.0
English language movies only 5 10.0
Where were you born?
United States 3 6.0
Cambodia 39 78.0
Other 8 16.0
Where was your father born?
Cambodia 48 96.0
Other 2 4.0
Where was your mother born?
Cambodia 48 96.0
Other 2 4.0
Where was your father's father born?
Cambodia 45 90.0
Other 5 10.0
TABLE 4. Continued
_____________________________________________________________________
Item f %
_____________________________________________________________________
Where was your father's mother born?
Cambodia 47 94.0
Other 3 6.0
Where was your mother's father born?
Cambodia 45 90.0
Other 5 10.0
Where was your mother's mother born?
Cambodia 45 90.0
Other 5 10.0
On the basis of the above answers, which of the following
generation best applies to you.a
1st generation 34 82.9
2nd generation 4 9.8
Don't know 3 7.3
Where were you raised?
In Cambodia only 14 28.0
Mostly in Cambodia, some in other
and some in United States 3 6.0
Equally in Cambodia, other,
and United States 2 4.0
Mostly in United States, some in
Cambodia, and some in other 20 40.0
In United States only 11 22.0
What contact have you had with Cambodia?a
Raised one year or more in Cambodia 18 37.5
Lived for less than one year in Cambodia 2 4.2
Occasional visits to Cambodia 6 12.5
Occasional communications (letters,
phone calls, etc.) with people in Cambodia 13 27.1
No exposure or communication with
people in Cambodia 9 18.8
What is your food preference at home?
Exclusively Cambodian food 16 32.0
Mostly Cambodian food, some American 22 44.0
About equally Cambodian and American 12 24.0
What is your food preference in restaurants?
Exclusively Cambodian food 12 24.0
Mostly Cambodian food, some American 14 28.0
About equally Cambodian and American 22 44.0
Mostly American food 2 4.0
TABLE 4. Continued
_____________________________________________________________________
Item f %
_____________________________________________________________________
Do you reada
Only Khmer 7 14.3
Khmer better than English 5 10.2
Khmer and English equally well 6 12.2
English better than Khmer 18 36.7
Only English 13 26.5
Do you writea
Only Khmer 8 16.3
Khmer better than English 5 10.2
Khmer and English equally well 5 10.2
English better than Khmer 16 32.7
Only English 15 30.6
If you consider yourself Cambodian, how much pride
do you have in this ethnic group?
Extremely proud 24 48.0
Moderately proud 23 46.0
Little pride 2 4.0
No pride but do not feel negative toward group 1 2.0
No pride but do feel negative toward group 0 0.0
How would you rate yourself?
Very Cambodian 13 26.0
Mostly Cambodian 14 28.0
Bicultural 18 36.0
Mostly Westernized 3 6.0
Very Westernized 2 4.0
Do you participate in Cambodian occasions, holidays,
traditions, etc.?
Nearly all 18 36.0
Most of them 17 34.0
Some of them 12 24.0
A few of them 3 6.0
None at all 0 0.0
TABLE 4. Continued
_____________________________________________________________________
Item f %
_____________________________________________________________________
Which of the following statements best describes
your view of yourself?a
I consider myself basically Cambodian. 20 40.8
Even though I live and work in America, I
still view myself basically as a Cambodian person.
I consider myself basically as an American. 1 2.0
Even though I have an Asian background and
characteristics, I still view myself as an American.
I consider myself as a Cambodian American, 11 22.4
although deep down I always know I am Cambodian.
I consider myself as a Cambodian American, 1 2.0
although deep down, I view myself as an American first.
I consider myself as a Cambodian American. 16 32.7
I have both Cambodian and American characteristics,
and I view myself as a blend of both.
_____________________________________________________________________
a Contained missing data.
TABLE 5. Respondents' Rating of Values and Fit (N = 50)
_____________________________________________________________________
Item M SD
_____________________________________________________________________
Rate yourself on how much you believe
in Cambodian values (e.g., about marriage, 4.02 0.96
families, education, work):a
Rate yourself on how much you believe
in American (Western) values:a 3.44 0.88
Rate yourself on how well you fit
when with other Cambodian:b 4.04 0.95
Rate yourself on how well you fit
when with Americans (Westerners) who 3.36 1.22
are non-Asian or Cambodian:b
_____________________________________________________________________
a 1 = "do not believe" and 5 = "strongly believe."
b 1 = "do not fit" and 5 = "fit very well."
TABLE 6. Internal Consistency of Scales
_____________________________________________________________________
Possible Respondents'
Scale Range Range M SD alpha
_____________________________________________________________________
Attitudes Toward Disciplinea 15-75 27-72 47.41 11.40 .85
Methods of Disciplineb 30-90 42-90 78.93 10.78 .90
Acculturationc 16-80 19-61 43.54 12.09 .92
_____________________________________________________________________
a Scale: 1 = "Strongly Disagree," 2 = "Disagree," 3 = "No Opinion,"
4 = "Agree," and 5 = "Strongly Agree." Higher scores indicate more
of a traditional Cambodian approach of disciplining.
b Scale: 1 = Physical Means, 2 = Emotional Maltreatment, and 3 = Reasoning.
Higher scores indicate the use of reasoning when disciplining.
c Scale: 1 = Cambodian (Khmer) to 5 = American.
Higher scores indicate a higher level of acculturation.
TABLE 7. Relationships Among Attitudes Toward Discipline, Methods of
Discipline, and Acculturation
_____________________________________________________________________
Variable r p
_____________________________________________________________________
Acculturation
Attitudes -.67 .000*
Methods .17 .302
Attitudes
Methods -.46 .002*
_____________________________________________________________________
* p < .05.
TABLE 8. Significant Differences in Acculturation and Attitude for Age Entered
U.S., Gender, Being a Parent, Employment Status, and Income
_____________________________________________________________________
Variable M SD t p
_____________________________________________________________________
ACCULTURATION
Age Entered United States
18 or Less (n = 35) 48.63 7.34 7.73 .000*
19 or Older (n = 11) 27.36 9.80
Gender
Female (n = 26) 40.19 14.02 2.42 .020*
Male (n = 20) 47.90 7.21
Parental Status
Parent (n = 14) 31.86 10.66 6.51 .000*
Not a Parent (n = 30) 49.60 7.19
Employment Status
Employed (n = 28) 47.89 6.61 3.05 .004*
Other (n = 16) 37.38 16.11
Income Level
0-$19,999 (n = 25) 40.12 14.06 2.57 .014*
$20,000+ (n = 20) 48.75 5.87
ATTITUDE
Age Entered United States
18 or Less (n = 34) 42.94 8.92 5.09 .000*
19 or Older (n = 15) 57.53 10.01
Parental Status
Parent (n = 18) 54.83 11.44 4.03 .000*
Not a Parent (n = 29) 42.97 8.67
Employment Status
Employed (n = 29) 44.17 8.65 2.22 .032*
Other (n = 18) 51.44 13.88
Income Level
0-$19,999 (n = 26) 50.35 11.53 2.27 .028*
$20,000+ (n = 22) 43.23 9.91
_____________________________________________________________________
* p < .05.
TABLE 9. Significant Differences in Acculturation and Attitude for Age and
Educational Level
_____________________________________________________________________
Variable M SD F p
_____________________________________________________________________
Acculturation 15.92 .000*
18-28 (n = 24)a 50.79 7.50
29-39 (n = 13) 40.69 9.18
40-50 (n = 3) 31.67 9.07
51+ (n = 6) 26.67 11.02
Acculturation 25.61 .000*
University Graduate (n = 14) 45.64 5.58
Some University (n = 8) 52.25 5.31
Junior/Community College (n = 9) 50.33 5.59
High School (n = 7) 45.29 11.59
Less Than High School (n = 7)a 21.57 3.87
Attitude 6.60 .001*
18-28 (n = 23)a 42.04 9.11
29-39 (n = 13) 47.62 11.19
40-50 (n = 5) 52.80 6.50
51+ (n = 8)a 59.13 10.93
Attitude 9.26 .000*
University Graduate (n = 13)a 40.15 8.02
Some University (n = 8)a 40.38 9.96
Junior/Community College (n = 10)a 47.00 7.94
High School (n = 8)a 49.50 11.45
Less Than High School (n = 9)a 61.00 5.79
_____________________________________________________________________
* p < .05.
a Significant difference.
