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RESULTS
This chapter is presented in seven sections:
- demographic characteristics of the sample
- respondents' attitudes toward discipline of children
- respondents' methods of discipline
- respondents' level of acculturation
- internal consistency of the scales
- relationships among acculturation, attitudes toward discipline, and methods of discipline
- effects of demographics on acculturation, attitudes toward discipline, and methods of discipline
Demographic Characteristics of the Sample
There were a total of 50 Cambodian adult participants in this study. Table 1 illustrates the demographic characteristics of the respondents. The largest group of the respondents (48.0%) was between the ages of 18-28. More than half (58.0%) were female. A high percentage of participants (95.9%) of the participants arrived in late 1979 or after, while only a small member (4.1%) arrived in the early 1979. With respect to the participants' age at time of entrance into the United States, 68.1% were 18 years of age or younger and 31.9% were 19 years of age or older.
Most of the respondents (62.0%) reported their marital status as single, 28.0% reported themselves as married, while 10.0% reported themselves as either divorced or widowed. In regard to characteristics of household, 55.1% of the respondents reported that their household consisted of two parents, while only 2.0% reported their household of having a stepparent. Approximately one-third of the respondents (37.5%) was a parent. In reference to the respondents who reported their status as parents, 38.0% have two children and 53.9% have between three to five children.
In relation to level of education, 28.6% reported having graduated from a university, while approximately 32% had at least some university or high school education. More than half of the respondents (58.3%) reported that they were employed full-time or part-time, while 29.0% reported public assistance as their sources of income. Less than 10.0% of the respondents reported a family income of $60,000 or higher, 55.1% reported a family income between $0 and $19,999, and 26.5% reported $20,000-$39,999 as their family income.
Respondents' Attitudes Toward Discipline of Children
The respondents' attitudes toward the discipline of children are presented in Table 2. Approximately three-fourths of the sample agreed that it would be a disgrace if a child yelled at his/her parents (78.0%), that sometimes children know more than his/her parents (74.0%), and that parents need to be strict to keep their children in line (73.5%).
Most of the respondents agreed that parents sometimes need to use physical punishment to teach their children right from wrong (64.0%), that parents decide what
is best for their children (60.0%), and that parents should have the right to use any method of discipline with their children (58.0%). More than half of the respondents agreed that children who are bad need to feel ashamed and guilty (54.0%) and that children should not tell their parents what to do (52.0%).
Less than half agreed that parents know better than their children (46.0%), that the belief that parents abuse their children is absurd (44.0%), that parents with conservative/traditional values have obedient children (42.0%), and that parents should have the right to use corporal punishment (40.0%).
Less than one-third of the respondents agreed that time out and reasoning does not work with children (32.0%), that it is not acceptable for children to voice their opinion if they disagree with their parents (32.0%), and that it is inappropriate for parents to accept faults (16.0%).
Respondents' Methods of Discipline
The respondents' methods of discipline are depicted in Table 3. The majority of respondents reported that they would use reasoning if a child fails in school (96.0%), refuses to share toys (95.9%), refuses to clean his/her room (94.0%), receives bad grades (94.0%), and acts too young for his/her age (90.0%). The majority of the respondents reported that they would use reasoning if a child refuses to do the dishes (89.8%), makes fun of others (89.8%), cries a lot (89.6%), tells parents a lie (88.0%), draws on the wall (88.0%), cheats on a test (88.0%), does not do his/her homework (88.0%), complains or is whiney (84.0%), jumps on the sofa (82.0%), and runs away from home (77.6%).
Approximately 70.0% of the respondents reported that they would use reasoning if a child does the following: disrespects adults or authorities, uses profanity, acts cruel to others, is truant from school, becomes suspended from school, refuses to go to school, smokes cigarettes, or argues often with parents or other adults. However, roughly 20.0% reported that they would use physical means of discipline.
Although most of the respondents (70.0%) reported that they would use reasoning if a child bit a friend, more than one-fourth (26.0%) reported that they would use physical means. Also, 64.0% would use reasoning, while 18.0% reported physical means, if a child goes out without permission, and 64.0% reported that they would use reasoning if a child does not listen to his/her parents, yet 30.0% would use physical means. Again, 62.0% reported that they would use reasoning; however, 26.0% reported physical means, if a child talks back to his/her parents and 60.0% reported reasoning, yet 38.0% reported physical means, if a child steals from stores.
About half of the respondents (54.0%) reported reasoning if a child uses marijuana, while 30.0% reported physical means. Less than half of the respondents (46.9%) reported reasoning if a child curses at parents, while 44.9% reported physical means.
Respondents' Levels of Acculturation
The respondents' levels of acculturation are presented in Table 4. Although, all of the respondents speak Khmer, 30.0% speak both English and Khmer equally, 36.0% speak mostly English, and less than 20.0% speak mostly Khmer. Sixty-six percent of the respondents reported that they prefer to speak both English and Khmer,
and 18.0% prefer to speak Khmer only, while none prefer to speak only English. The majority of respondents (83.0%) identified themselves as Cambodian (Khmer) American, 10.0% identified themselves as Asian, and none identified themselves as American. Exactly 40% of respondents reported the ethnic origin of their friends and peers as about equally Cambodian groups, other Asian or Oriental groups, and Anglo groups.
Thirty-eight percent reported that they associate with mostly Cambodian Americans, other Asian or Orientals within their community. However, 32.0% reported that they associated equally with Cambodian, other Asians or Orientals, and Anglo groups. Half of the respondents (50.0%) reported that they would prefer to associate with about equally Cambodian, other Asian or Oriental, and Anglo groups, 22.0% would prefer almost exclusively Cambodian, Cambodian Americans, other Asian or Orientals groups, while 10.0% would prefer mostly Anglo, Black, Hispanic, or other non-Asian ethnic groups. More than one-third of the respondents (36.7%) reported their music preference as equally Cambodian (Khmer) and English and 34.0% reported their movie preference as English language movies mostly.
More than three-fourths of the respondents (78.0%) reported that they were born in Cambodia. At least 90.0% of respondents reported that their father, mother, father's father, father's mother, mother's father, and the mother's mother were born in Cambodia. Similarly, the majority (82.9%) reported that they were first generation (born in Cambodia or other Asian country).
The majority of respondents (40.0%) reported that they were raised mostly in the United States, some in Cambodia, and some in other countries. The majority of respondents (81.2%) have some exposure to Cambodia: raised 1 year or more in Cambodia, lived for less than 1 year in Cambodia, occasional visits to Cambodia, or occasional communications with people in Cambodia. However, a few respondents (18.8%) reported no exposure or no communication with people in Cambodia.
The largest number of respondents (44.0%) reported their food preference at home as mostly Cambodian food and some American food, while 44.0% reported their food preference in restaurants as about equally Cambodian and American.
More than one-third (36.7%) reported that they read English better than Khmer and 26.5% read only English. Less than half (30.6%) reported that they write English better than Khmer, 32.7% reported writing English and Khmer equally well, and 16.3% reported writing Khmer only. The majority of respondents (94.0%) reported themselves to be extremely or moderately proud of their ethnic group. More than one-third (36.0%) reported themselves as bicultural and 54.0% rated themselves as mostly to very Cambodian. Seventy percent of respondents reported that they participate in either most to nearly all Cambodian occasions, holidays, traditions, etceteras, while 24.0% participated in some of the activities.
The largest numbers of respondents reported that they consider themselves basically Cambodian--even though they live and work in America, they still view themselves as a Cambodian person (40.8%). Nearly one-third of the respondents (32.7%) considered themselves as a Cambodian American--they have both Cambodian and American characteristics and they view themselves as a blend of both.
Table 5 presents the respondents' ratings of values and fit. On a scale of 1 ("do not believe") to 5 ("strongly believe"), respondents believed in Cambodian values (M = 4.02, SD = 0.96) and somewhat believed in American (Western) values (M = 3.44, SD = 0.88). On a scale of 1 ("do not fit") to 5 ("fit very well"), respondents fit well with other Cambodians (M = 4.04, SD = 0.95) and fit well with Americans (Westerners) who are non-Asian or non-Cambodian (M = 3.36, SD = 1.22).
Internal Consistency of Scales
Total scores for attitudes toward discipline, methods of discipline, and acculturation were calculated. Table 6 presents the respondents' range of scores and the means, standard deviations, and coefficient alphas for each scale.
A total score for attitudes toward discipline was calculated by summing together individual responses. Items were scored as follows: 1 = "strongly disagree," 2 = "disagree," 3 = "no opinion," 4 = "agree," and 5 = "strongly agree" so that higher scores indicate a more traditional Cambodian approach of disciplining. Respondent scores ranged from 27-72, with a mean of 47.41, indicating a moderate level of a traditional Cambodian approach to disciplining.
A total score for methods of discipline was calculated by summing together individual items. Items were scored as follows: 1 = physical means, 2 = emotional maltreatment, and 3 = reasoning. Higher scores indicate the use of reasoning when disciplining. Respondent scores ranged from 42-90, with a mean of 78.93, indicating a high level of the use of reasoning when disciplining.
A total score for acculturation was calculated by summing together items 46-47, 50-53, and 55-63. Higher scores indicate a higher level of acculturation. Respondent scores ranged from 19-61, with a mean of 43.54, indicating a bicultural orientation.
Internal consistency for the scales was excellent for attitudes toward discipline, methods of discipline, and acculturation.
Relationship of Acculturation,
Attitudes Toward Discipline, and Methods of Discipline
Pearson's r correlations were used to determine associations among attitudes to discipline, methods of discipline, and acculturation. Two significant associations were found and are presented in Table 7. The stronger the respondents' attitudes toward discipline according to a traditional Cambodian approach, the more likely they were to use physical means or emotional maltreatment as methods of discipline. Also, lower level of acculturation were related to greater use of physical means or emotional maltreatment as methods of discipline.
Effects of Demographics on Acculturation,
Attitudes Toward Discipline, and Methods of Discipline
t-Tests were used to determine differences in attitudes toward discipline, methods of discipline, and acculturation for age entered United States (18 or younger/born in United States versus 19 or older), gender, marital status (married versus other), household (two parents versus other), being a parent, and type of income (employed versus other), and gross family income (0-$19,999 versus $20,000+). The significant differences are reported in Table 8.
For age entered the United States, respondents who entered the United States at 19 years or older were significantly less acculturated than were those who entered at 18 or less or were born in the United States. Also, respondents who entered the United States at 19 years or older had a significantly more traditional Cambodian approach toward disciplining than did those who entered at 18 or less or were born in the United States.
For gender, males were significantly more acculturated than were females. Respondents who were parents were significantly less acculturated than were those who were not parents and respondents who were parents had a significantly more traditional Cambodian approach toward disciplining than those who were not parents.
Respondents who were employed were significantly more acculturated than were those who were not employed and respondents who were employed had a significantly less traditional Cambodian approach toward disciplining than did those who were not employed.
For gross family income, respondents who made $20,000 or more were significantly more acculturated than were those who made less than $20,000. Respondents who made $20,000 or more had a significantly less traditional Cambodian approach toward disciplining than did respondents who made less than $20,000.
Analysis of variance was used to determine differences in attitudes toward discipline, methods of discipline, and acculturation for age (18-28, 29-39, 40-50, and 51+) and educational level (university graduate, some university, junior/community college, high school, and less than high school). The significant findings are reported in Table 9.
Respondents who were between the ages of 18-28 were significantly more acculturated than were respondents ages 29-39, 40-50, and 51 years or older. Also, respondents who were 51 years or older had a significantly more traditional Cambodian approach toward disciplining than did those who were between the ages of 18-28.
Respondents who had less than a high school level of education were significantly less acculturated than were those with a high school level of education or those who had higher than high school level degrees. Also, respondents with less than a high school level of education had a significantly more traditional Cambodian approach toward disciplining than did those who reported junior or community college, some university, or university graduate.
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